A BRIEF ESSAY ON BUDDHISM

38 min readSep 16, 2019

INTRODUCTION

Buddhism as a religion differs from the generally accepted norms of many other religions. With malice towards none, it has to be mentioned that most other religions, are merely based more on intuition and emotion. They are inspired and fed by faiths, beliefs rather than on sound reason and argument, derived from a rational attitude of mind.

Buddhism ranks fourth as a practicing religion with nearly 550 million adherents scattered throughout the world.

As normally applicable to all religions, Buddhism too has its own principles and practices. The objective of this brief essay is to bring into focus the basic underlying principles of Theravada Buddhism and its relevance in the modern social context. Basics as enumerated herein may seem elementary, but the fact of the matter is that, some of us are now on the verge of losing our memory potential, perhaps due to the influence of modern SMART technological inventions, so much so, that we cannot even solve a simple arithmetic sum without seeking the help of the multiplication tables, now readily available on the Smartphone. In addition the most primary reason that instigated and prompted me to write this Essay was to comply with a request made by my daughter Mavali, who had an assignment to make a speech on Buddhism to a group students of the school attended by her children in Dhaka, Bangladesh. I am glad that this essay though somewhat lengthy was sufficiently full of facts to fill her need to draw up a short speech.

Buddhism, by any standard of imagination, is richly endowed with a vast treasure trove of knowledge in written form, authored by an array of erudite scholars worldwide, during a long period in the past.The thought of the “Manual of Buddhism” written by Rev. Narmada, the guiding textbook on Buddhism, reminds us of our school days.This essay consists of assimilated quotations derived from several such sources, including the sacred Buddhist scriptures, the Tri Pitakas. Due reference is given to extracted quotations at sites as appropriate to substantiate the relevance of authority.

SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF INDIA DURING 600 BCE

According to HINDU religious beliefs Maha Brahma is the creator of the entire Universe. However, religion as we all understand to-day can be easily classified under two distinct groups. The first of which is based on revelation, that is to say, those dependent upon the authority of a Saint, who claims to be a Prophet receiving a specific message, sent down from Heaven for redemption of mankind. The second group is based on the spread of teachings, derived on the basic facts of life experience gained during this lifetime spent on Earth.

Buddhism belongs to the second category.

During the sixth and fifth centuries BCE (Before Christian Era) in the central and eastern plains of river Ganga, in India, there occurred a remarkable development in spiritual and intellectual thinking. As a matter of fact, this trend was seen as widespread throughout the entire continent of Asia.

In China, it was the age of Lao Tzu,

In Persia the present day, Iran, it was Zoroaster,

In Asia-Minor, there were pre-Socratic philosophers,

In India, during the sixth century BCE, the religious and intellectual activities were dominated by Brahamanic traditions, all based on the holy texts of past,written in Sanskrit language such as the Upanishads Brahmanas, Aranayakas and Vedas.

It is pertinent here to record an extract from page 414 of the book titled “The cultural heritage of India” to assert the intellectual superiority of ancient India, visa-a-vis Western countries of that Era.

“When the greater part of world was merged in the abyss of ignorance, it is the Indian Sages who first understood the necessity of dissection of the human body for education of physicians and surgeons says Susruta writing in unmistakable language two thousand years ago. Therefore, whoever wishes to get a clear idea of Salya (surgery) must prepare a corpse in the proper way and see by careful dissection every part of the body, in order that he may have definite and doubtless knowledge.” (Sarira, Ch.V)

Compare this with what Dr.Theodor Puschmann (1844–1899) has said in his book “History of medical education.”regarding the practice of dissection in Europe.

“Dissection of the human subject was in the first centuries of the middle ages opposed by religious and political ordinances and also by social prejudices.”

Circulation of blood was understood with fair clearness long, long before the much talked of discovery by Sir. William Harvey (1578–1657) in the Seventeenth century.

“From that great center (the heart) emanates the vessels carrying blood into all parts of the body- the element which nourishes the life of all animals and without which life would be extinct. It is that element which goes to nourish the fetus in utero and which flowing into its body returns to the mother’s heart”. (Charaka Samhita sutra Ch.XXX)

And wonder of wonders, what was discovered by the ancient Sages of India over a couple of thousand years ago came as so great a surprise to most medical men in Europe in Harvey’s time, that in David Hume’s (1711–1776)) “History of England” it is stated as follows;

“No doctor above the age of forty could be persuaded to believe in the impossible suggestion of Harvey who was condemned and hooted out of society for his discovery.”

It is pertinent herein to include a passage extracted from “A history of Europe -Vol 1 “at page 14 authored by H.A.L.Fisher ( 1865–1940 ) a distinguished British scholar and a historian, who vehemently supported the contribution of European in the development of modern scientific achievements.

“It is moreover, to European man that the world owes the incomparable gifts of modern sciences.To the conquest of nature through knowledge the contributions made by Asiatics have been negligible and by Africans (Egyptians excluded) non-existent. The printing press and telescope, the steam engine, the internal combustion engine and the aero plane, the telegraph and telephone, wireless broadcasting and the cinematograph, the gramophone and television, together with all the leading discoveries in physiology, the circulation of the blood , the laws of respiration and the like, are the results of research carried out by white men of European stock. It is hardly excessive to say that the material fabric of modern civilized life is the result of the intellectual daring and tenacity of the Europeans.”

LIFE OF BUDDHA

Now, reverting back to the subject matter of this brief essay i.e., Buddhism, let me begin by tracing briefly the life story of the Buddha, the founder of Buddhism.

GOTAMA BUDDHA , lived in Northern India in the sixth century BCE. His personal name was Siddhartha and his family name was Gotama. He was called Buddha after He attained Enlightenment and realized the ultimate Truths. When He refers to Himself, the term frequently used was Thathagatha which implies the meaning as “ One who has come to Truth”.

Buddha means the “Awakened” or the “Enlightened One” He was a born prince. His father was King Suddodhana ruler of a Northern Indian state of Kapilawastu Pura and Queen Maya was His mother. He was born on the full moon day of the month of May at Lumbini Park in the year 623 BCE, that is about 2638 years ago from now. His mother Queen Maya died 7 days after his birth and he was raised thereafter by Queen Maya’s own sister Princess Prajapati Gotami. He had a luxury filled upbringing, well tutored and versatile in many skills befitting a royal prince. At the ripe age of sixteen years he married his own cousin Princess Yasodhara. Prince Siddhartha with all the comforts at his disposal, yet for all, he found life in the Palaces not at all pleasant but intolerably miserable, similar to that of a bird living in a gilded cage.

During his occasional visits outside the Palace, he saw in rapid succession, what was known as the “Four disgusting sights” that is, an old man, a sick person, a dead body and a holy monk, one after another. Thus, the realization came to him that “LIFE IS SUBJECT TO OLD AGE, SICKNESS AND DEATH AND THEREIN HE FORESAW THE NEED TO FIND A SOLUTION TO OVERCOME THESE MALADIES.” He pondered over the question as to where is the realm of life in which there is neither old age nor death? The sight of the monk with a shaved head and cladded with a saffron coloured robes made him realize that search for the TRUTH must begin by giving-up all the worldly comforts and belongings. Thus began the idea of RENUNCIATION, which he must have thought as the only way to bring ultimate happiness to those who crave for it.

Incidentally, Vardamana, later called Mahavira, the founder of Jainism is said to have been born in 599 BCE at Vaishali in Patna district in India. Some Buddhist sources are of the belief that Mahavira was a contemporary of Buddha

During this period of time, there were two distinct groups of religious practitioners actively present in India.

(a) One group promoting the belief that salvation had to be attained through Yajan maarga, ie, by doing sacrifice, while the

(b) others held the view that salvation was only possible through the development of knowledge leading to wisdom, ie, by Gnana maarga.

In addition to these two prominent groups, there were also a few other Ascetic groups, such as Ajivakas, Paribbajakas, and Nigantakas. These groups belonged to the Sramana traditions, whereas the earlier mentioned two main groups belonged to Brahmana tradition. Even Buddha prior to Enlightenment belonged to the Sramana group.

One night in his twenty-ninth year of birth, soon after the birth of his son Rahula, he bade a silent farewell to his beloved wife and infant son and then saddled his white stallion and rode off to the forest to become a hermit. There is also a contradictory opinion in some circles that he left the Palace with the knowledge and consent of his near and dear.

This kind of renunciation is unprecedented in history. He gave up his position, wealth, promise of prestige and power and a life filled with love and hope in exchange for the search of truth, that no one else has ever ventured to find, for so long in the recorded history of mankind.

For six long years, he laboured to find this bewildering truth, and the Truth that he was seeking was to understand the exact nature of existence and the final emancipation. He studied under a variety of famous and leading masters and learnt everything that these masters were capable of teaching him. Having not been satisfied with this process of tutelage, he decided to venture on his own, to find the Truth by himself. A group of five other ascetics joined with him in this exercise. They practiced severe austerities in the belief that, if the body was subjected to hard torture, then the soul would be relieved of the sufferings. He practiced starvation so much that what remained was the mere skeleton wrapped within the outer skin. A solid stone statue of antiquity, explicitly carved in this posture is now exhibited for public view, at the Lahore Museum in Pakistan. Having undergone this torture for six long years, he finally realized the futility of self-mortification, and decided to practice moderation instead. On full moon day of the month of Vesak he sat under the Bodhi-tree at Gaya in the present Indian state of Bihar, in deep meditation. He realized that there remained the five hindrances ( Panchanivarna) blocking his stream of thoughts leading up to mental purification and ultimate realization of the TRUTH

The five hindrances are (1) Lustful desire — (Kaamachchanda) (2) Ill-will — (Viyapada) (3) Hatred or anger- (Hina Middaha) (4) Restlessness or worry — (Uddachcha Kukkuchcha) (5) Skeptical doubt — (Vichikichcha)

He was able to overcome these residual five hindrances during this session of meditation. He was suddenly transformed from an eager, earnest TRUTH seeker into The Supreme BUDDHA, the Enlightened One at the age of 35 years.

After attainment of the Supreme Enlightenment the Buddha spent the next seven weeks, in the vicinity of the Bodhi-tree at Bodh Gaya, in contemplation of His achievement

First week He sat under the very same Bo-tree recounting his thought process.

The second week he paid his debt of gratitude to the sacred Bo-tree for sheltering Him during the period of meditation, by gazing at it without even blinking His eyes. This apparently is the first lesson He intended to demonstrate to humanity — BE GRATEFUL for whatever assistance you may get.

From the third week to the seventh The Buddha spent His time in deep meditation pacing in and around the hallowed grounds of the Bo-tree at Bodh Gaya.

It was during this period of seven weeks The Buddha really planned-out the method of conveying the discovered message of The Dhamma to the masses in a simple manner so that they may benefit by hearing and adopting it.

It is on record that during this period The Buddha was visited by two unexpected guests Tapassu and Balluka, two wandering merchants from Orissa state, who offered The Buddha a prepared meal with flour, honey and water. These two persons are supposed to be the very first persons to take refuge in The Buddha.

BUDDHA’S MISSION BEGINS

Being fully aware of the prevailing religious traditions of that time, the Buddha ventured upon a novel path in search of final Emancipation. He discarded the accepted views such as the following;

Divine creation,
Belief in a perpetual SOUL,a
Determinism and Annihilations.

There afterwards on the full moon day of June at Isipatana Deer Park in Benaras, The Buddha delivered His first sermon to the five ascetics who had associated with Him during the days of His recluse life. These five ascetics, Kondannya, Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mahanama, and Assaji by then, were known to have practiced deep meditation or concentration of mind and as such, were able to see their previous births. At this sermon the Buddha advocated the Middle Path, in the following manner. “There are two extremes that should not be followed by a recluse. They are the extreme pleasures and the other is to give severe painful suffering to the body. One should avoid these two extremes but cleanse the mental faculties to develop knowledge and achieve wisdom. Realize the TRUTH through concentration of mind, a process that is also called meditation, that will eventually dawn upon you to the realization of the deliverance and Emancipation”. Buddha’s first words were

“Pubbesu annanussutheu Dhammesu”

“LIGHT AROSE IN ME (ENLIGHTENMENT) IN THINGS NOT HEARD BEFORE.” Thus I have now realized “THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS” setting the “WHEEL OF RIGHTEOUSNESS” in motion.

On hearing this First Sermon itself, the five ascetics became the first disciples of the Order of monkhood or Sangha of the Buddha’s Order.

Furthermore, in this First Sermon which is known as the “DHAMMA CHAKKA PAVATTANA SUTRA”, what the Buddha preached was the conditional arising of all existence and their universal characteristics, namely, ANICCA, DUKKHA and ANATTA

ANICCA means IMPERMANENCE, (Everything is subject to constant change)

DUKKHA means very vaguely, SUFFERING; this comes as the very first Noble Truths that the Buddha explained very clearly in the First Sermon itself,

ANATTA meaning that there is nothing called a SOUL or a SELF, no permanent entity,

All forms of existence lead to;

(1) DUKKHA which is the continuous suffering of human experience

(2) SAMUDAYA cause or the reason for arise of Dukkha or suffering. There is an end to DUKKA, namely

(3) NIRODHA, a state of non-existence or no more births, achievable through proper conduct while living in the present physical form itself,

(4) The PATH leading to Nirodha or Nirvaana is by following THE EIGHT NOBLE PATHS.

The Eight Noble Paths is a code of conduct composed of Wisdom, Ethical and Mental disciplines of everyday life.This consists of Eight Factors, all of which must be practiced simultaneously to achieve the desired objectives of selfless Emancipation.

They are;

(1) Right Understanding (wisdom- Mind based)

(2) Right Resolve (wisdom — Mind based)

(3) Right Speech (ethical — Body based)

(4) Right Action (ethical — Body based)

(5) Right Livelihood (ethical — Body based)

(6) Right Effort (mental — Mind based)

(7) Right Mindfulness (mental — Mind based)

(8) Right Concentration (mental — Mind based)

Taking “RIGHT EFFORT” as an example, it is explained in detail by Rev. Dr.Walpola Rahula. in the following manner, as quoted from his book “What The Buddha taught”

“RIGHT EFFORT is the energetic WILL on the part of a person

(1) to prevent evil and unwholesome states of Mind (thoughts) arising and

(2) to get rid of such evil and unwholesome thoughts that has already arisen in the Mind, and

(3) to produce to cause to arise good and wholesome thoughts, not yet arisen and

(4) to develop and bring to perfection the good and wholesome thoughts already present.”

Commenting further in praise of The Noble Eightfold Path, Prof.T.W.Rhys Davids (1843–1922) about whom there is a very informative article on the Internet written by Lorna Dewarajah. Prof. David’s as the Founder of Pali Text Society of London and also the Professor of Pali in the University College of London has said as follows;

“Buddhist or non-Buddhist, I have examined every one of the great religious systems of the World, and in none of them I have found anything to surpass in beauty and comprehensiveness, the NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATHS of The Buddha, I am content to shape my life according to that PATH”

There are no commands to be adhered to in Buddhism, everything a Buddhist does, he does so by understanding fully well the reasons for doing so.

Both as a religion and a way of life, Buddhism is based on the fact that there is nothing called a SOUL

The Buddhist teaching that everything is impermanent and subject to change, rejects totally the belief that there is the existence of a permanent substance in the whole Universe. Accordingly, the Universe cannot be accepted as the creation of an almighty God or an impersonal Godhead. On the contrary, it is asserted as the real outcome of Causes and Effect or Conditions.

In stark contrast to almost all other religions practiced in the world to-day, the things that are totally absent in Buddhism are GOD, DEVIL, DOGMA, SOUL and PRAYERS. The clarion call in Buddhism is “EHIPASSIKO” which means COME and SEE and not Come and Believe.

Immediately after the First Sermon, The Buddha desired to teach His five disciples the Second Discourse, named as “ANANTALAKKANA SUTTA”. This discourse included the characteristics of “Anatta” the Soullessness, which also explains in detail the subject of “DEPENDANT ORIGINATION”,( Patichcha ‘samuppadaya. )The Second Sermon was held on the Full moon day of the month of July,

He presented His teachings based on the fundamental doctrine of “DEPENDENT ORIGINATION ’or as described in other words as “CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP

This brings into focus the most important principle that all happenings in the Universe are relative, conditioned states which cannot arise independently of supportive conditions.

This agrees totally with the modern scientific view of the material world. Since everything is conditional, relative and interdependent , there is nothing in this world which could be regarded as a permanent or unique entity, that is sometimes regarded as an ego or an eternal SOUL which many people believe in.

As an example let us consider an oil lamp. The flame in an oil lamp burns dependent upon the oil and the wick. The flame will last as long as the oil and the wick is present and when either one of these are gone the lamp ceases to function as the flame is no more. Similarly, the example of a plant can be taken. For a plant to grow, to begin with, you need a healthy seed. In addition, it needs earth, air, moisture and sunlight to grow. All these factors depend upon a number of other relevant independent factors of their own. Therefore, it is virtually impossible to think of a FIRST CAUSE. This in essence is the principle of DEPENDANT ORIGINATION, (Patichcha samuppadaya).

In Buddhism, there is no GOD- creator whom Buddhist shall obey and fear. Buddhism teaches that man can gain his deliverance by his own exertions, without depending on a GOD or a mediating priest.

As the British Biologist, T.H.Huxley (1825–1895) states “Buddhism is a system which knows no God in the Western sense, which denies the Soul to man , which counts the belief in immortality a blunder, which refuses efficacy to prayer and sacrifice, which bids man to look to nothing but their own effort for salvation.”

Buddhism is more scientific than the most modern Sciences. Like Science, Buddhism is based on verifiable Cause and Effect relationship. But, unlike Science, Buddhism challenges every belief thoroughly well. In the famous “KALAMA SUTTA” as discourse by The Buddha, it is stated that one should not rely fully on “what is taught, tradition, hearsay, scripture logic, inference, appearances or agreement with established opinion, the accepted competence of a teacher or even on the mere trust of one’s own teacher.

Clear experience occurs when one’s measuring instruments such as one’s senses are clear and bright and undisturbed. In Buddhism there are three kinds of bias. They are

(1) DESIRE — Lobha (2) ILL-WILL –Dvesha (3) SKEPTICAL DOUBT — Mooha.

DESIRE makes one see only what he really wants to see, it bends and twists the TRUTH to fit one’s own preferences.

ILL-WILL makes one blind to whatever is disturbing or dis-consorting to one’s accepted views, and thereby distorts the TRUTH by denial,

SKEPTICAL DOUBT stubbornly refuses to accept those proven TRUTHS, like RE-BIRTH that is plainly valid but which fall outside of one’s comforting world view. (Prof. Ian Stevenson has already demonstrated by his thorough and critical research investigations several instances of re-births. In addition, Edgar Casey’s book “Many Mansions’ describes several instances of rebirth revealed after hypnotizes. Also, Dr.Brian Weiss has published books on instances of reincarnation as found in his research works.)

We are all endowed with the following five senses. ( Pancha Salayatana) — (1) SIGHT (thro- Eyes) (2) HEAR (thro- Ears) (3) SMELL (thro- Nose) (4) TASTE (thro- Tongue) (5) TOUCH (thro- Hands) In addition, according to The Buddha’s teaching MIND is the sixth sense. It is the MIND which encompasses the five senses mentioned earlier, and thus controls all of them under its domain. Therefore, CLEAR and OBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE happens only when positive influences of the five SENSES are allowed to be formed in the MIND. The MIND is the most uncontrollable static element of energy functioning in the human body whose exact location of existence is untraceable. The speed at which the MIND’s activities are done, exceeds that of the most modern computer presently in use. The basic Law of MIND according to The Buddha is

As you see-So you will Feel,

As you Feel — So you will Think,

As you Think — So you may Will,

As you Will — So you will Act.

Buddha’s advice regarding MIND as mentioned in Ratana Sutta is as follows;

“Ye suppa Utta Manasa dalhena

Nikkamino Gotama sasanami “

Meaning that Gotama sasana’s message for anyone is to get rid of the severe attachment to MIND.

According to Majjuma Nik. Sut.3 MANA (meaning MIND) is described as follows

“The very fine and subtle matter within the heart where MIND CONSCIOUSNESS is mainly generated”

(The belief that the MIND is based in the heart was common amongst ancient Philosophers)

Modern technology incidentally, has produced and implanted artificial hearts on many people but “The very fine and subtle matter” referred to above, was not an included accessory in those artificial hearts.

Again, it is of interest to read the following quotation extracted from the book written by the Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid (1710–96) titled “ An inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense”

“All that we know of the body is owing to anatomical dissection and observation and it must be by an anatomy of the MIND that we can discover its powers and principles.”

This obviously seems an absurd and impracticable suggestion because to do an anatomical dissection, first of all, we have to find where the MIND is located in the human body. As for dissection of such a sensitive neuron circuitry of the brain, it has to be recalled that the reveal of some of the brain’s intricate functions occurred solely due to an accident that happened in 1848 to the American railroad worker Phineas Gage, whose skull was pierced with a steel rod while working, but, yet found to remain conscious.

Now that we are on the subject of MIND, the following extract derived from the book “MEANING & PURPOSE” written by Kenneth Walker (1882–1966) will be of interest;

“Mind in itself is believed to be a subtle form of static energy, from which arises the activities called ‘THOUGHT’ which is the dynamic phase of MIND.”

“MIND is Static energy and THOUGHT is dynamic energy. The two phases of the same thing.’’

In the book “Revolt in the Temple” by D.C.Wijewardana at page 370 it is stated as follows

“Pleasure and happiness are distinctly two different things. Pleasure is elusive, temporary and can leave a bitter taste; also it can be costly, yet unsatisfactory. Not so happiness which does not have to be purchased! as it comes from the inner source — the MIND.”

Dr. Daniel Coleman, Psychologist and author of the bestselling books “Emotional Intelligence”, “Social Intelligence”, “The Meditative Mind” and several other books, having spent a post-Doctoral scholarship period of two years in Sri Lanka, India, and at Dharamsala, the Tibetan enclave in Himachal Pradesh, has commented as follows;

“While I was there (Sri Lanka & India) I began to study the Asian religions on the theories of the MIND. I was surprised to find fully articulated systems of psychology — generally little known — as the heart of these religions; the most fully articulated systems of thought. This System describes how the MIND works, and how that process gives rise to ordinary states of suffering, and remedies — especially MEDITATION. I, of course, had never heard of this psychology in the West, even though it has been in full continuous operation for more than 1500 years.”

Incidentally, Dr. Coleman has vividly explained in his “Intelligence” books, the function of the MIND in relation to the neuron circuitry of the brain that operates in amalgamation with the neuro-chemicals such as oxytocin and endorphins etc.,

It is quite normal for any one to harbor several questions tormenting forever until satisfactory answers are found for them. Even during the period of Buddha, it was a common phenomenon, that Buddha adopted four ways of treating questions posed to him (as expounded in detail in Angutt.Nik, Sutras)

Some should be answered directly.
Others should be answered by way of analyzing them.
Yet others should be answered by counter-questions.
And lastly, there are questions which should be ignored forthwith.

A clear instance of the manner in which Buddha confronted Malunkyaputta who presented the Buddha with ten well-known classical questions on meta-physical problems and demanded answers, are found in Majjuma Nikaya Cula-Malaunkya sutta .

Rev. Dr.Walpola Rahula in his monumental treatise “What the Buddha Taught” at page 13 describes this whole episode in very clear language. It is appropriate to extract this narrative verbatim from that book itself, because of its inherent essence of authenticity in translation from the original Pali text, as could be done so well, only by Rev. Dr. Rahula, the world renown versatile scholar in Occidental languages

“One day Malunkyaputta got up from his afternoon meditation, went to the Buddha, saluted him, sat on one side and said ‘Sir, when I was all alone meditating, this thought occurred to me: There are these problems unexplained, put aside and rejected by the Blessed One.Namely

is the universe eternal or
Is it not eternal
Is the universe finite or
Is it infinite
Is soul the same as body or
Is soul one thing and body another thing
Does the Thathagatha exist after death, or
Does He not exist after death,
Does He both (at the same time) exist and not exist after death,
Does He both (at the same time) not exist and not not-exist.

These problems the Blessed One does not explain to me.This attitude does not please me. I do not appreciate it. I will go to the Blessed One and ask him about these matters.If The Blessed One explains them to me, then I will continue to follow the holy life under Him. If he does not explain them, I will leave the Order and go away. If theBlessed One knows that the universe is eternal, let Him explain it to me so. If the universe is not eternal, let Him say so. If the Blessed One does not know whether the universe is eternal or not, etc., then for a person who does not know, it is straight-forward to say “ I do not know, I do not see.” The Buddha’s reply to Malunkyaputta should do good to many millions in the world today who are wasting valuable time on such metaphysical questions and unnecessarily disturbing their peace of mind.: ’Did I ever tell you, Malunkyaputta, “Come, Malunkyaputta, lead the holy life under me, I will explain these questions to you?” ”No sir.” Then, Malunkyaputta even you, did you tell me: “Sir, I will lead the holy life under the Blessed One, and the Blessed One will explain these questions to me”? “ No, Sir” Even now, Malunkyaputta, I do not tell you: “ Come and lead the holy life under me, I will explain these questions to you.” And you do not tell me either: “ Sir, I will lead the holy life under the Blessed One, and he will explain these questions to me.” Under these circumstances, you foolish one, who refuses whom? When both are free and neither is under obligation to the other, how can anyone be blamed for any lapse.

Malunkyaputta, if anyone says: “ I will not lead the holy life under the Blessed One until He explains these questions, he may die with these questions unanswered by the Thathagatha. Suppose Malunkyaputta, a man is wounded by a poisoned arrow, and his friends and relatives bring him to a surgeon. Suppose the man should then say: “ I will not let this arrow be taken out until I know who shot me: whether he is a Ksatriya (of the warrior caste) or a Brahmin (of the priestly caste) or a Vaisya (of the trading and agricultural caste) or a Sudra (of the low caste:) what his name and family may be: whether he is tall, short, or of medium stature; whether his complexion is black, brown, or golden; from which village, town or city he comes. I will not let this arrow be taken out until I know the kind of bow with which I was shot; the kind of bowstring used; the type of arrow; what sort of feather was used on the arrow and what kind of material the point of the arrow was made. Malunkyaputta, that man would die without knowing any of these things. Even so, Malunkyaputta, if anyone says; “ I will not follow the holy life under the Blessed One until He answers these questions such as whether the universe is eternal or not, etc.,” he would die with these questions unanswered by the Thathagatha’

Then the Buddha explains to Malunkyaputta that the holy life does not depend on these views. Whatever opinion one may have about these problems, there is birth, old age, decay, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, distress, “ the Cessation of which (I.e..Nirvana) I declare in this very life”

Therefore, Malunkyaputta, bear in mind what I have explained as explained, and what I have not explained as unexplained. What are the things that I have not explained? Whether the universe is eternal or not, etc.,(those 10 opinions) I have not explained. Why, Malunkyaputta have I not explained them? Because it is not useful, it is not fundamentally connected with the spiritual holy life, is not conducive to aversion, detachment,cessation,tranquility, deep penetration,full realization, Nirvana. That is why I have not told you about them.

“ Then, what, Malunkyaputta, have I explained? I have explained DUKKHA, the arising of DUKKHA, the cessation of DUKKHA, and the way leading to the cessation of DUKKHA. ( The four Noble Truths) Why Malunkyaputta, have I explained them? Because it is useful, is fundamentally connected with the spiritual holy life, is conducive to aversion, detachment, cessation, tranquility, deep penetration, full realization, Nirvana. Therefore I have explained them.” (Thus ends the quoted extract)

BUDDHA’s PARINIRVANA (Demise).

Having spent 45 years travelling mostly on bare foot and accompanied always by a retinue of devout disciples, one night, while resting at Kutagara Hall at Vesali, The Buddha requested His close aide monk Ananda to assemble all the bhikkhus present. At this assembly The Buddha had summarized His teachings in this manner “O , Bikkhus what I have so far realized by my own effort, The Dhamma (Doctrine) learn it well, for the benefit of all beings of the world, strive on with diligence. In three months’ time from now The Buddha is destined to die and attain Parinibbana, (meaning the end of cyclic incidence of birth and recurring death)

Thereafter The Buddha accompanied by this same group of monks travelled towards Kusinara. On

reaching Kusinara, while resting at the Sala Tree Gardens, belonging to King Malla He fell sick very badly and called Ananda and said “Once after The Buddha attain Parinibbana, which is very close at hand, The Dhamma( Doctrine) will remain as the supreme guide after His demise. But for the veneration of those who would follow His Dhamma, there in India shall have four sacred places. They are (1) Lumbini (where Siddartha Gotama was born), (2) Buddha-Gaya (where Enlightenment happened) (3) Sarnath (where The First Sermon was delivered) and (4) Kusinara (where Parinibbana occurred). There-upon Ananda raised the question as to how the final rites to the remains should be done. The Buddha answered by saying that usual customs as befitting a monarch Emperor, such as burning the body in a pyre may be carried out, and the residual ashes are to be distributed as relics for enshrinement in Stupas for veneration of devotees. Ananda who was seen to be in deep sorrow at this time was consoled by The Buddha by saying that Ananda by his devout adherence to the Doctrine, he is already on the way to salvation. Furthermore, The Buddha reminded Ananda that The Dhamma (Doctrine) and the Vinaya (the Code of Ethics) as already taught by Him must be strictly followed and these two will prevail as the guiding Master. Finally, addressing the gathered monks The Buddha has said as follows “Monks, I speak to you all now, for the last time. Everything born or originated out of CAUSE & EFFECT, all aggregates are in the nature of destruction. Therefore, without delay do good, purify your minds, by doing good actions collect merit and prepare yourselves for the final salvation. Decay is inherent in all component things. Therefore, work out in haste,your emancipation with diligence.” The Buddha passed away on His 80th.Birthday which fell on the full moon day of the month of May (Vesak) in the year 543 BCE, proving that all component things are impermanent, unsatisfactory and soulless. The 45 years of The Buddha’s life spent on the propagation of His Doctrine and the territory He covered in that mission was a very small portion of the Aryan India. which included the old kingdoms of Kosala, Magadha, and the surrounding areas of Oudh and Bihar. Incidentally, it has to be reckoned that the World at large during the period of Buddha’s advent (2500 years ago) was very primitive as compared to the material advancements of modern day civilisation.These territories where Buddhist influence was dominant was known as Eastern Hindustan while in the Western Hindustan the Braminic Doctrine was predominant. The Buddhist concentration was mainly centered around Sravasti (now Sahet) the capital city of Kosala on the North-west and Rajagaha (now Rajgir). the capital of Magadha, on the south of Bihar. The distance between these two cities was about 400 miles. Most of The Buddha’s recorded Discourses are associated with these two cities, where generous wealthy chieftains had provided The Buddha with dwelling places with spacious gardens and parks for the use Buddha and His ever increasing vast number of disciples. These ruined places of historical importance are now restored and made accessible for the veneration of devotees who come on pilgrimages to India from all over the World.

PERIOD AFTER BUDDHA’s PARINIRVANA.

Soon after the Demise of the Buddha, signs of dissent began to emerge within the Order of the monks and in order to reconcile these matters of dispute the First Council of 500 disciples met at Rajagaha. This Council is also named as the “Pancha Sathi Sanjjanaa” as it was attended by 500 Rahat Bikkhus. At this Council only Sutra and Vinya Pitakas were discussed and ratified while there is no mention of the existence of an Abhidharma Pitakas at this stage.

The Second Council was held at Vesali, 100 years later. By this time the original Order (Bhikkhu & Bhikkhuni) was split into 18 different Sects, belonging to 4 main schools of thoughts, namely Maha Sangika, Sthavira, Sarvasthavadi, and Sammitiya.

By this time Chandraguptha (322–298 BCE) came into rulership of a greater North Indian Kingdom, Alexander the Great, the Greek Emperor was appearing on the Western frontier of India. Chandragupta and his son Bindusara were not Buddhists but favored the Brahamins.

With the ascent of ASOKA (270–232BCE) Chandraguptha’s grandson who became a devout Buddhist, Buddhism once again received the royal patronage. Asoka’s Empire in India extended from Himalayan range in the North to Pennar river at 15 deg. South, Latitude.

ASOKA, as a devout Buddhist Emperor believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all human beings as well as for animals and plants, so he built a vast number of Stupas, dwelling places for Buddhist monks all over his Empire. Having visited almost all sacred sites associated with Buddha’s life, it is in record that he erected 34 Edict all over his Empire. The temple complex at Bodh-Gaya and the Stupa at Sanchi in Bhopal are his creations. Under the patronage of Emperor Asoka The Third Council was held at Pataliputra (Patna) that is about 218 years after the Buddha’s Parinirvana, and the theme of that Council was to cleanse the Doctrine from false concepts that has crept into it, and also to expel about 60000 imposters appearing as monks, thus polluting the image of the clergy.This Council is also known as “The Sahassika Sajjayana”,and it lasted for about nine months. It is in records that the Prelate Moggaliputta headed this Council with 1000 other Rahat Bikkhus. Those who agreed with the view that Buddha as a “Vibajjavaadi” teacher were reckoned as genuine Buddhist monks and the rest was expelled at the end of this Council’s session.

As mentioned in Asoka Edict no.13, Emperor Asoka sent out missionaries to all parts of India and several other countries in Asia, though some of these were not under his ruler ship. Sri Lanka was one of the beneficiaries of Emperor Asoka’s mission. Writing of ABHIDHAMMA and 7 parts of Pitaka for Theravada was completed at this occasion.

Emperor Asoka’s death in 232 BCE brought about the downfall of the entire Empire, and India was invaded by the Greeks, who exerted a great influence over the Buddhist culture. The Scythians, there upon founded the KUSHAN Empire. Scythia is the region North and North-east of the Black sea. KANISHKA, the greatest of all Scythian kings became a strong supporter of Buddhists and initiated the holding of the Fourth Council during the first century AD at Jalandhar in Kashmir. The bifurcation of Buddhism into two divisions as existing today — THERAVADA and MAHAYANA sects happened after this Council.

The Mahayanists followed the Buddhist Canon as adapted at Jalandhara Council, by resorting to the use of Sanskrit as its language of record and developed the Doctrine in a mystical and devotional way. Whereas the Theravadis continued use of Pali as its language and preserved its rationalistic, monastic, and puritanical elements of the Doctrine. In spite of this division Buddhism continued to flourish in India during the next few centuries, gaining popularity and material prosperity. Fa-Hien the Chinese visiting monk observed this situation during his journey to India the fifth century AD. Another Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsiang having visited India later in the seventh century, found the declining state of Buddhism in India. This decline continued unabated till about the eleventh century.

The Muslim invasion of India that took place at this time virtually wiped out Buddhism from India. However, as a result of Emperor Asoka’s extensive missionary efforts Buddhism found fertile grounds for growth in many of the neighboring countries in Asia. Asoka’s own son, the monk Mahinda Thera introduced Buddhism to Sri Lanka in the third century BCE. Sometime afterwards during the First century BCE, the Fifth Council was held in Sri Lanka in 5 stages, beginning at (a) Thuparama in Anuradhapura during King Devanampiyatissa reign (b) at Aluvihare in Matale during King Valagambahu reign (89–77 BCE) © when Buddhagosa Thera translated Sinhala Atthakatha to Pali during the reign of King Mahanama, (d) at Polonnaruwa recitation of Atthakatha during the reign of King Maha Parakramabahu (e) The Three- Pitake (3 basket of Buddhist sacred Doctrine) which was brought up to the period of King Valagambahu by means of memory and vocal recitation, faced the threat of total loss if learned Bikkus died due to the onslaught of widespread famine at that time. To avert this impending disaster, 500 erudite Bikkhus gathered at Aluvihare, where the historic process of writing down the Doctrine on Ola leaves took place.

Sona and Uttara Theros were instrumental in the introduction of Buddhism to Burma, where nature and demon worship was the norm prior to the advent of Buddhism.

Buddhism was introduced to China in the First century and thence to Korea in the 4th. century. Japan got it from Korea in the 6th. century

The Chinese affiliated Buddhism with their own existing faith systems of CONFUCIANISM and TAOISM whereas in Japan the dilution has happened with SHINTOISM.

In the 7th. century AD, Buddhism was introduced to Tibet, where it became fused with the existing Tibetian religion of BON, which was full of dreadful superstitions and savage practices like human sacrifice etc. The LAMAISM was the later outcome in Tibet and that is considered as one of the most bewildering, poly-theists, and Idolatrous systems of worship known to man.

In the Islands of Java and Sumatra, Buddhism flourished along with SAIVISM from the 7th. century onwards until about the 15th. century, when Muslim invasion displaced both religions

However, BUDDHISM survives even today in the Island of Bali

In Cambodia, Buddhism became powerful in the 9th. century (AD)

In Thailand, Buddhism was recognized as the national religion from the inception of Thai kingdom in the 14th. century AD.

When Buddhism became inter-nationalized in this manner, Sangha (the Order) of each country adapted themselves into the prevailing social environment of those countries and evolved by gathering to themselves the traditions, conventions, practices, institutions and usages etc. peculiar to themselves.

Dr. E.W.Adikaram in his book “ EARLY HISTORY OF BUDDHISM IN CEYLON” states as follows, in this regard;

“No words are necessary to indicate how far these rituals are from the spirit of the original, pure and unadulterated teachings of The Buddha as exemplified, especially, in the DHAMMAPADA. The growth of ritual was a necessary one, if the faith was to have a hold in the masses. It was bound to come. But, there is always this satisfaction that these new practices, though they formed a part of the common religion of the masses, did hardly affect the Pitakas, which the Sinhalese monks zealously protected from all possible accretion”

The Buddha has enumerated the five AGGREGATES OF LIFE as NAAMA (the 4 mental faculties) plus RUPA which again consist of (4 physical elements such as Solidity, Fluidity Heat and Motion). The 4 mental faculties that add up with the RUPA are VEDANA, (the sensation of feelings) SANNA (perception or identification) SANKARA (mental formations or attitudes or tendencies VINNANA (consciousness- mental energy combined with the above mentioned 3 mental faculties and 6 sense objects.)

“SANKARA PARAMA DUKKA

NIBBANA PARAMA SUKA

ETAM NATIVA YATHABUTAM

SAANTI MAGGAMVA BRUHAYETI’

(The meaning of above Pali Stanza is as follows)

“Compounding is utter misery,

Nirvaana is highest bliss.

Really knowing this truth

One is on the Path to Peace.”

NIRVANA — The final emancipation

As pe Samyuktha Nikaya IV — Sutra 252, NIRVANA is defined as follows;

The destruction of lust (Raaga)

The destruction of delusion (Moha)

The destruction of hatred (Dwesa)

The Way (Maarga) and Fruition (Phala) of NIRVANA is attained by Noble people (Ariya Puggala) in four sequential stages step by step, as they achieve liberation from the TEN fetters (Dasa Sanyojana) as listed in Anguttara Nikaya Dasaka Nipatha in the following manner

(a)LOWER GROUP (Orambagiya)

(1) Belief in personality or self illusion. (Sakkaya ditthi)

(2) Skeptical doubt on the Triple Gem. (Vichikichcha)

(3) Sensual craving. (Seelabbatha paramasa)

(4) Sensual craving. (Caama raaga)

(5) Ill-will (Pratigya vyapaada)

(b) UPPER GROUP (Uddambhabagiya)

(6) Desire to be born in Brahma domains (Rupa raaga

(7) Desire to be born in Brahma domains. (Arepa raaga)

(8) Conceit. (Maana)

(9) Restlessness.(Uddachcha)

(10) Ignorance or lack of clear vision of the Four Noble Truths.(Avijja)

The 1st. Path of stream winning (SOWAAN) is the initial step directed towards NIRVANA. This is achieved by the liberation from fetters numbered as (1), (2) & (3) listed above. A SOWAAN person will have only seven rebirths and will never be born in hell.

The 2nd. Path of stream winning (SAKURUDAGMI) is achieved by the partial conquest of fetters numbered (4) & (5) above. Such a person will be born only once into this world.

The 3rd. Path of stream winning (ANNAAGAMI) is achieved by those who are completely liberated from fetters (4)&(5) above. An ANNAAGAMI person will be born in Brahma domains and find his way to Nirvaana from there.

The 4th. And final stage is attainment of (ARAHAT) which comes with the liberation from the last five fetters (6) to (10) as given above. ARAHAT is the highest stage of realization, the final liberation from suffering, as solemnly declared by the Buddha to be his equal as far as the defilement and ultimate deliverance is concerned.

Literally “SANKARA” means simply COMPOUND (both noun and verb) that is, the function we refer to as COMPOUNDING (and the Compound that results therefrom)

COMPOUNDS are ever changing, all things, compounds included are such that they are not easy to be grasped at as selves or as belonging to oneself.

All Compounding is thoroughly unsatisfactory and it is nothing but worry, trouble, distress, and misery.

NIRVANA implies the antithesis of SANKARA that is from this process of Compounding.

So even good action, action in no way evil, sinful, unwholesome, does not by any means bring freedom from the unsatisfactory conditions. Just as an evil man suffers the torment due to an evil-doer, so a good man too is bound to experience his own particular type of suffering.

The Buddhist teaching of Dhamma came into the world in order to inform people about the highest thing attainable by human beings. Therefore, NIRVANA is not something to be attained only after death. It is attainable at any time when the MIND becomes free from Compounding. Freedom from Compounding at any moment is NIRVANA.

Regarding MIND and COMPOUNDS Etc. there is the following interesting quotation extracted from the book “Meditation” written in Greek by Marcus Aurelius, the only Philosopher Roman Emperor who ruled the Roman Empire from 161 to 180 AD. This contains a semblance of Buddhist philosophy regarding COMPOUNDS, in the minds of learned people living at that time in the European region.

“Waiting for death with cheerful MIND, as being nothing else than a dissolution of the elements of which every living being is COMPOUNDED. But if there is no harm to the elements themselves in each continually changing into another, why should a man have any apprehension about the change and all elements; for it is according to nature and nothing else is evil which is according to nature”

Dr.Senaka Ranasinghe has published in the print media and also made available in the Internet under his name, few thoroughly informative essays on DEATH, REINCARNATION,Etc. These are as extracted from his book “The Science and the Art of Buddhism” published by Buddhist Cultural Centre, Nedimale, Dehiwala. This book is written so well in clear simple style of prose, will no doubt provide ample scientific explanation to some complex teachings of Buddha.

“CHETANA HAM BIKKAWE KAMMAN WADAMI”

The Buddha’s saying as quoted from Anguttara Nikaya, vol.3; means “O, Monks I declare that VOLITION is KAMMA”

The Pali word KAMMA literally means Action or Doing but not all actions are considered as KAMMA, as for instance the digestion of food and all reflex actions, and also all action devoid of moral significance. VOLITION is a factor of the MIND, a psychological impulse that comes under the group of formations, SANKARA. Having willed, man acts by deed, word or thoughts and these VOLITIONS may be good or bad or neutral, depending on the results.

When a person under the influence of defilements performs some actions (KARMA), especially when he performs some action considered evil, such as drinking, killing, adultery, stealing, things like that, then he is COMPOUNDING. Compounding is based on ignorance, delusion, stupidity. It goes on until it produces feelings of pleasure and satisfaction in the MIND of the doer.

The Law of Kamma is summarized in the Buddhist texts in the following manner;

“According to the seed that is sown,

So is the fruit, ye reap therefrom.

The doer of good, will gather good,

The doer of evil, evil will reap.

Sown is the seed and planted well,

Thou shall enjoy the fruit thereof.”

BUDDHIST LITERATURE

Before the time of Emperor Asoka’s reign (270–232 BCE) there existed in India, a significant collection of Buddhist Literature. This is evident from the fact that Asoka, in his “Bhabra Edict “recommends the Buddhist clergy and the lay adherents to learn by heart and meditate on some selected passages as extracted and quoted from Nikaya books.

A Chronological Table of Buddhist Literature from the Buddha’s time to the time of Emperor Asoka as appearing at page 188 of Prof. Rhys David’s book “Buddhist India” is given below. This represents the probable order in which the extant Buddhist documents of this period were composed. They were not yet written, and a great deal has no doubt been lost.

The simple statements of Buddhist Doctrine now found, in identical words, in paragraphs or verses recurring in all the books.
Episodes found, in identical words, in two or more of the existing books.
Silas, the Parayanas, the Octades, the Patimokkha.
The Digha, Majjhima, Anguttara, and Samyutta Nikayas.
The Sutta Nipata, the Thera- and Their-Gathas, the Udanas, and the Khuddakapatha.
The SuttaVibhanga and the Khandakas.
The Jatakas and the Dhammapada.
The Niddesa, the Itivuttaka, and the Patisambhida.
The Peta and Vimana-Vattus, the Apadanas, the Cariya Pitaka, and the Buddha Vamsa.
Abidhamma books; the last of which is the Katha Vatthu, and the earliest probably the Puggala Pannatti.

In order to give an authoritative and a clear understanding of the evolution of Buddhist Literature, it is considered necessary to quote from the Preface of the book “Dialogues of the Buddha” written by the eminent Professor Rhys Davids.(1843–1922)

“The Buddha, like other Indian teachers of his time, taught by conversation. A highly educated man (according to the education current at the time) speaking constantly to men of similar education, he followed the literary habits of his time by embodying his doctrine in set phrases, sutras, on which he enlarged on different occasions in different ways. In the absence of books — for though writing was widely known, the lack of writing materials made any lengthy written books impossible- (Very probably memoranda were used. But the earliest records of any extent were the Asoka Edicts, and they had to be written on stone) — such sutras were the recognized form of preserving and communicating opinion. These particular ones were not in Sanskrit, but in the ordinary conversational idiom of the day, that is to say, in a sort of Pali.

When the Buddha died these sayings were collected together by his disciples into the Four Great Nikayas. Nikayas means Baskets or separate groups. They cannot have reached their final form till about fifty years afterwards. Other sayings and verses, most of them ascribed not to the Buddha himself, but to the disciples, were put into a supplementary Nikaya. We know of slight additions made to this Nikaya as late as the time of Asoka. And the developed doctrine found in certain short books in it — notably in the Buddhavamsa and Kariya Pitaka and in the Peta — and Vimana Vatthus — show that these are later than the four old Nikayas.

For a generation or two the books as originally put together were handed down by memory. And they were doubtless accompanied from the first, as they were being taught, by a running commentary. About 100 years after the Buddha’s death there was a schism in the community. Each of the two schools kept an arrangement of the canon — still in Pali (or possibly some allied dialect.) Sanskrit was not used for any Buddhist works till long afterwards, and never used at all, so far as we know, for the canonical books. Each of these two schools broke up, in the following centuries, into others; and several of them had their different arrangements of canonical books. Differing also no doubt in minor details. Even as late as the first century after the Christian Era, at the Council of Kanishka, these books, among many others then extant, remained the only authorities. But they all, except only our present Pali Nikayas, have been lost in India. Of the stock passages of ethical statement, and of early episodes, used in the composition of them, and of the Suttas now extant, numerous fragments have been preserved in the Hinayana Sanskrit texts. And some of the Suttas, and of the separate books, as used in other schools, are represented in Chinese translations of the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. A careful and detailed comparison of these remains with the Pali Nikayas, after the method adopted in Windisch’s ‘Mara and Buddha’, cannot fail to throw much light on the history, and on the method of composition of the canonical books, which in style and method, in language and contents and tone, bear all the marks of considerable antiquity.”

In his famous book”The Outline of History” H.G.Wells (1866–1946) said

“The fundamental teachings of Gautama, as it is now being made plain to us by the study of original sources, is clear and simple and in the closest harmony with modern ideas.It is beyond all dispute the achievement of one of the most penetrating intelligence the world has ever known.

We have what are almost certainly the authentic heads of his discourse to the five disciples which embodies his essential doctrine. All the miseries and discontents of life He traces to insatiable selfishness. Suffering He teaches is due to the craving individuality to the torment of greedy desire. Until the man has overcome every sort of personal craving, his life is trouble and his end is sorrow. There are three principal forms the craving of life takes,and all are evil.The first is desire to gratify the senses, sensuousness. The second is the desire for personal immortality. The third is the desire for prosperity, worldliness. All these must be overcome- that is to say a man must no longer be living for himself — before life can become serene. But when they are indeed overcome and no longer rule a man’s life, when the first personal pronoun has vanished from is private thoughts, then he has reached the higher wisdom, NIRVANA, serenity of soul. For NIRVANA does not mean, as many people wrongly believe, extinction, but the extinction of the futile personal aims that necessarily make life base or pitiful or dreadful.

Now here, surely, we have the complete analysis of the problem of the soul’s peace.Every religion that is worth the name, every philosophy, warns us to lose ourselves in something greater than ourselves. Whosoever shall save his life shall lose it; there is exactly the same lesson…..

In certain other respects this primitive Buddhism differed from any of the religions we have hitherto considered. It was primarily a religion of conduct, not a religion of observance and sacrifices. It has no temples, and since it has no sacrifices it has no sacred order of priests. Nor had it any theology. It neither asserted nor denied the reality of innumerable and often grotesque gods who were worshipped in India at that time. It passed them by.”

A list of Buddhist sacred books is given as follows

TRI PITAKA or the three basket is composed of the 3 Pitakas –(1)VINAYA, (2)ABHIDAMMA & (3)SUTTA.

Tri-Pitaka is supposed to have been recorded in writing in Pali language around 80 BCE and translated into English about 100 years ago in England.

TRI PITAKA is now accessible through the Internet.

(1) VINAYA (VP)- The Book of Discipline, giving the rules of conduct for Sangha, the Clergy. This consists of five books, namely,

(I) Suttavibhanga –(VP-S)

(ii) Parivara — (VP-P)

(iii) Maha Vibanga — (VP-M)

(iv)Bhikkhuni Vibhanga — (VP-B)

(v) Khandhaka –(VP-K); This again is subdivided into two books called (1) Maha vagga and (2) Chula Vagga

(2) ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA — (AP) — This gives an in-depth analysis into MIND & MATTER, under 7 books,

(i) Dhamma sarigani — (AP-Ds)

(ii) Vibanga — (AP –V)

(iii) Dhatu-katha — (AP –D)

(iv) Puggala-pannati — (AP — Pp)

(v) Katha-vatthu — (AP-K)

(vi) Yamaka — (AP-Y)

(vii) Patthana — (AP-P)

(3) SUTTA PITAKA- (SP) — contains the main teachings of Buddha, collected into 5 Nikayas,

(i) Diga Nikaya — (SP-D)

(ii) Majjima Nikaya — (SP-M)

(iii) Samyuktta Nikaya — (SP-S)

(iv) Anguttara Nikaya — (SP-A)

(v) Khuddaka Nikaya — (SP-K). This again is divided into 15 books as follows

(1) Khuddaka-patha (SP-K-K)

(2) Dhammapada (SP-K-D)

(3) Udaana (SP-K-U)

(4) Itivuttaka (SP-K-I)

(5) Sutta Nipata (SP-K-S)

(6) Vimaana-vatthu (SP-K-V)

(7) Peta-vatthu (SP-K-Pv)

(8) Thera-gatha (SP-K-Ta)

(9) Their-gatha (SP-K-Ti)

(10) Jathaka (SP-K-J)

(11) Niddesa (SP-K-N)

(12) Patisambhida (SP-K-P)

(13) Apadana (SP-K-A)

(14) Buddhavamsa (SP-K-B)

(15) Cariya-pitaka (SP-K-C